Human and Animal Reproductive Cloning Research Assignment - 1650 Words

Human and Animal Reproductive Cloning Research Assignment (Essay Sample) Content: [Students Name][Tutors Name][Course Details][Date]Human and Animal Reproductive CloningBreakthroughs in medical research often elicit ambivalent reactions from all quarters of society. In most cases, new technologies in the medical realm end up polarizing society into proponents and opponents of the developments. The main issues of concern relating to advancements in medical research often revolve around the safety of the technologies and their moral soundness. A typical example of a medical research development that continues to elicit acute criticism is cloning. Since its discovery in the 20th century, cloning has taken center stage as one of the most controversial medical developments of all time. Numerous attempts have been made at cloning animals and humans, but only a few verifiable cases have made notable progress. This research paper thus seeks to examine the concept of human and animal reproductive cloning with the aim of investigating the tenets of this conc ept and the perspective of society on the issue, ranging from ethical, scientific, and biological points of view.Historical Overview and Status of CloningCloning as a medical technology is considered relatively new in the public domain. According to UNESCO (7), the term clone was initially used in early 20th century botanical endeavors that were aimed at developing plant grafts. Over the years, the terms use evolved to involve the development of animals from a single parent organism. Cloning is thus the development of an almost genetically identical organism from another organism (Human Genetic Alert 2). Animal cloning started taking shape noticeably in 1952 when scientists Robert Briggs and Thomas King decided to experiment with frogs (UNESCO 8). Their experiments were inspired by the work of a German embryologist, Hans Spemann, who had earlier on done some laboratory work on the possibility of somatic cell nuclear transfer using salamanders (UNESCO 8). Applying the same technolog y to mammals proved tricky for scientists until 1997 when Dolly, the worlds first cloned mammal was successfully delivered (Nordgren 279). Since then, several animals species such as cows, pigs, mice, rats, rabbits, cats, mules, horses and dogs have been successfully clowned (Nordgren 279). Research on animal cloning is still ongoing because previous attempts have yielded clones that are plagued with defects and malformations. Dolly, the sheep that was cloned by Scottish scientists under the guidance of Ian Wilmut, survived for just six years and was then euthanized due to lung related complications and premature arthritis associated with older sheep (UNESCO 11). The latest development in cloning was when Snuppy, the first cloned dog was successfully delivered after over one thousand attempts (Nordgren 279). Dogs and primates have been a subject of attention for scientists for quite a long time since successfully cloning them has been elusive. Cloning Techniques and ProcessesAccor ding to the German Ethics Council (hereafter GEC) (17), there are several techniques that can be used to artificially produce balstocysts, but only two are applicable for animal and human cloning. The two possible techniques are embryo splitting and nuclear transfer (GEC 17). In embryo splitting, the scientists imitate the natural process through which monozygotic twins are formed, and the technique can yield up to several from a single embryo (GEC 17). The technique is only fit for cloning species such as mice, rats, rabbits and sheep among others. Cell nuclear transfer, on the other hand, involves the use of two cells so that one of them an egg cell or oocyte acts as the receptor and the other cell, the donor cell, provides the nucleus (GEC 18). The nucleus of the oocyte is removed to give room for the nucleus from the donor cell, but the oocyte provides the components necessary for embryo development (GEC 18). Once the nucleus from the donor cell has been implanted into the oocyt e, the egg cell has been fertilized and is thus technically, an embryo ready for development. It is then implanted into a surrogate parent who bears it through the gestation period to delivery (GEC 18). Possibilities of Cloning a Human BeingThe possibility of cloning human beings, though a subject of research for a long time, still seems remote. Of the scientists who have claimed to successfully clone human embryos, only those from Advanced Cell Technologies, an American organization, published a scientific paper in 2001 to show that they had carried out research to that effect (Human Genetic Alert 2). Of the embryos that were cloned, the most well developed only reached six cells (Human Genetic Alert 2). Many other claims that have been put forth remain unsubstantiated. Claims of successful human cloning include South Korean scientists claim that they had successfully created human embryo clones only for their laboratory to be closed by their government, a claim by Chinese scienti sts that they had cloned several human embryos and persistent claims by Professor Severino Antinori (Italy) and Panayiotis Zavos (US) that they planned to develop cloned babies (Human Genetic Alert 2). The Raelians, a Canadian religious sect also made unsubstantiated claims of successfully cloning several children (Human Genetic Alert 3). Though documentation on human cloning is scarce, it is possible to deduce from the successful attempts of cloning other animals that it is not easy to come up with a normal clone, let alone a human clone. Dolly, the most famous clone was successfully delivered after 227 attempts, 29 of which were successfully implanted into surrogate parents, but Dolly was the only survivor (Nordgren 279). Snuppy, the first successfully cloned dog came to be after 1095 attempts of which 123 implantations were made, but they yielded only two live births of which Snuppy was the only survivor (Nordgren 279). This information proves beyond doubt that creating a clone i s no mean task. From the existing statistics, although the few attempts that have been successful seem to show that cloning is possible, it has been reported that the success rates stand at about 5% for some species, but a slow as 1% for others (Lane 126). The German Ethics Council (21), notes that the failure rates of cloning are about 96% implying a success rate of only 4%. It is important to note that what has been documented refers only to the animal species that have so far been successfully cloned. Those that have not been successfully cloned, especially monkeys, are primates like humans. Logically, if a monkey or any other primate is yet to be successfully cloned, it can only mean that humans are even more difficult to clone. Nonetheless, the breakthrough that was recently reported on dog cloning, which had proved elusive alongside primates, is a positive indicator that there is progress and in the future, primates may successfully be cloned. The German Ethics Council (20) n otes that currently, the primary obstacle in primate cloning lies in the fact that a primate egg cell has some essential protein structures located so proximately to the cell nucleus that the removal of the nucleus to give room for a transplant interferes with their ability to catalyze cell division. This eliminates the cells ability to replicate and grow. This has impaired the researchers ability to produce successful primate clones, but research is ongoing. Human cloning, however, may take longer to be achieved because the scientific community generally perceives it as unacceptable so that those who do any research in this area, do so amid protests from many quarters. This can also be viewed as a factor that can impede research in the line of human cloning.Ethical Issues surrounding Reproductive Cloning of Animals and HumansFrom an ethical perspective, opponents of cloning argue that cloning is an attempt at playing God and controlling nature, and that is not acceptable (Human Gen etic Alerts 7). It is considered a violation of human rights and serious undermining of human dignity to experiment with humans as has been the case with other animals. For instance, as noted earlier, the first successfully cloned dog Snuppy, was obtained after over one thousand attempts which only gave two live births, but only one survived. The same was th...

Essay on An Analysis of Sebastiao Salgaldo’s Migrations

An Analysis of Sebastiao Salgaldo’s Migrations Migrations: Humanity in Transition is an overwhelming photography exhibit, done completely in black and white, which is currently on display at the Ackland Art Museum on the University’s campus. The 300 photograph exhibit according to Simon James of RPS Journal, is the type of exhibit which clearly â€Å"takes a step back† from the disturbing details of individual problems around the world and paints a panoramic view of how harsh the entire universe has become (James, 2001). The photography is done by a photographer named Sebastiao Salgado and his specific style and calculated techniques allow him to direct the audience’s focus to particular subjects in his photographs. I believe that†¦show more content†¦The photograph that I chose to analyze is just one photograph in a series that Salgado hoped would give the world an idea of the magnitude of destruction that Rwandan refugees have faced over a three year period from 1994-1997. I was particularly drawn to a picture of a tractor plowing dead corpses into a pile in Rwanda because of the oddity of the circumstance and because of the focus on one particular woman in the photo. In the picture, the body of a woman wearing a white dress has been picked up by a tractor and is being transported to another pile of bodies. It is such a breathtaking photo that it takes the viewer a second to comprehend what they are looking at, and get their bearings before they can move on. I was immediately floored by the photo and then disgusted by its content. Mary Behrens, a writer for Art New England, said about Salgado’s exhibit, â€Å"I often felt like I was being clobbered over the head with simply too much statistical evidence: too much poverty, too much misery, too many orphans, too little food, and much too much human anguish† (Behrens, 2003). All of his photos in this exhibit are just as dis turbing as the next, and they lead the viewer to question the significance of the history behind them. According to The US Committee for Refugees (USCR), the feud between the Hutus and the Tutsis dates back to at least the late 1950s or early 1960s when the Hutus, who represent approximately 85

History of Ife/Modekeke Crisis - 4543 Words

HISTORY OF MODAKEKE Modakeke is a town in Osun State, South West Nigeria, with a population of close to three hundred thousand people.The Modakekes are also known as the Akoraye and have a history of valor at war and are prosperous farmers. With the fall of the Oyo Empire to the Fulani, the Yoruba kingdom was thrown into confusion and the inhabitants of the Old Oyo were dispersed and started new settlements all around Yoruba land.Fleeing southwards in search of new abodes after the fall of the Oyo Empire, the Oyos started settling among the Ifes in 1834. As the Romans of old, they were soldier-farmers. They were hardy as soldiers and industrious as farmers. Having lost all their possessions in their hasty flight, they started life in Ife†¦show more content†¦The Modakekes are known nationwide as one of the highest producers of cash crops such as Cocoa, Kolanut, Palm Oil etc. PEOPLE AND CULTURE Ife East Local Government Area Office, Modakeke-Ife was created as a child of necessity following the recommendation of Chief Olabode George committee set up by Chief Olusegun Obasanjo to broker peace between the people of Ile-Ife and Modakeke Communities. The Area Office formally took off on 1st April, 2002 and made up of what is historically known and addressed as Modakeke Akoraye. The Area Office Modakeke-Ife is centrally placed amidst the neighbouring towns and villages that comprised the defunct Oranmiyan Local Government in Ife Land. There are numerous towns and villages in the Area Office. Some of them are: Alabameta, Koola, Odole, Ajagunna, Doya, Asabi, Ijugbe, Awoye, Aba-Oke, Olooyo, Fagunwa, Asarogun, Oyan, Aba Lemomu, Jatina. However, Ife East Area Office shares boundaries with Ife Central, Ife North, and Ife East Local Governments. Hence, it has three political wards. The indigenes of Ife East Local Government Area Office, Modakeke-Ife are predominantly Oyo speaking peop le bounded with the same custom and culture. However, non-indigenes from all parts of Nigeria and foreigners reside in the Area Office, living together in harmony. Yoruba and English are the languages of the people

Examining Emerging Technology

Question: Discuss about the Examining Emerging Technology. Answer: Introduction: Emergence of mobile technology in health care are very much user-friendly, vary from hand held to pocket sized device like iPads. Author discussed the use of some emerging mobile technologies in health care. Smart phones help health care providers to review patient information, lab reports, make prescriptions, connect it with EHR and manage clinical messages. Patients get the opportunity to view, schedule and make appointments, see medical record, track their own progress, find best medical service and pharmacies. Drawbacks include interference with medical devices and misinterpretation. Personal health records (PHR) is the latest technology associated with EHR, with a greater focus on patients participation in healthcare decision making. It helps to improve patient tracking, encourage patient participation and offer social networking integration. However, data security and privacy of health information and data accuracy are key constrains of this technology (Bajwa, 2014). The GPS sy stem is recently being used in healthcare, which helps in tracking physical activity, tracking the location of vulnerable patient, thus acting as a monitoring system. Clinical decision support (CDS) helps to implement EHR in evidence based practice by providing reminders, analyzing clinical performance, recognizing possible risks and encouraging adherence. Related technology devices, which have great potential in the health care field. The rapid use of smart phone has provided a great opportunity to behavioural healthcare. There are a number of applications in smart phones, which are being used in the clinical practice, i.e. behavioural health care. The behavioural health apps promote the real time two-way communication. In behavioural healthcare, audios and videos are crucial elements. Two-way audio and video capability provides new opportunities for telebehavioral health in low cost and flexible mode. On the other hand, it has played a significant role in psychoeducation and providing information resources. mHealth platform providers greater accessibility of accessing data bases or other clinical information. For instance, DSM-IV-TR and ICD 10 Search are two apps that provide efficient references regarding psychiatric diagnosis to the users. Thus, smart phones are providing a alternatives to browse health information and help to disseminate behavioural health information in a creative way, which in turn enhance p atients adherence with the therapy. Psych central summarizes behavioural health research findings, help clinicians to be up-to-date in this field. As social support is a key aspect of behavioural health care, Luxton et al., (2011) highlighted the opportunities by mHealth apps regarding enhanced social engagement of patient. Su et al., (2012) discussed about an emerging technology for sustainable clean water supply. Clean water supply is a significant problem due to increased demand of water indifferent sectors. A number of technologies have been developed. Forward osmosis (FO) is an emerging membrane process that utilizes the natural osmosis. As osmotic pressure gradient is build through the semipermiable membrane, thus it needs negligible energy for transporting water across the membrane. This process is distinguished from the others for sustainable clean water supply. It shows a great potential in variety of application. In case of the production of drinking water, the quality of water has met high standards. However, fouling is the key issue of this technology. One should consider the uniqueness of FO membrane for specific application. Targeted therapy is a key way of treating benign and malignant tumors. Wankhede et al., (2012) represented Magnetic nanoparticle (MNPs) as a promising tool in brain cancer therapy. Researcher showed that conjugation of antibodies or peptides on the Magenetic nanoparticles surface assist in direct targeting of the drug to the tumor cell and disrupts tumor cells active signalling pathways. However, researcher represented challenge in the delivery of these nanoparticles to the malignant brain tumors due to presence of blood brain barrier. The penetration of these nanoparticles in the normal brain is another challenge of this technology. Further research promotes the emergence of better delivery of nanoparticles through injection. Related thermotherapy established safety, feasibility and enhanced efficacy among patients. However, future translational studies are assumed to prove promising impact of these nanoparticles over the malignant cancer therapy. Nanoscience have shown great potential in agricultural science through the provision of novel and improved solutions to many significant challenges faced by the agricultural research and development. Many nanoscale carriers are able to deliver chemicals such as polymers, dendrimers, encapsulation and entrapment, surface attachment particles through nanotechnology, which are used for protecting and delivering these chemicals in a controlled manner, intended in the unique crop production procedure. Use of nanotechnology in agricultural chemical delivery increases the stability of the chemical in the host. Nanotechnology provides field sensing system, which provides crucial data for best agronomic intelligence process for minimizing resource inputs and maximizing output and yield. Nanotechnology helps in studying plant disease and pathology through nanofabrication. Nanotechnology enabled cost effective identification of plant trait in short period through gene sequencing. Chen and Yada (2011) also highlighted that crops and plants can obtain nanoscale cellulosic nanomaterials, which can add value to the crop production in forest. It has also shown beneficial role in animal production and health. However, it has been revealed that partnership and collaboration is needed for sustainable agriculture development. In agricultural field, colour is considered as a key factor affecting food acceptance. Thus, improving food colour at the time of processing through the addition of colorants is a common phenomenon in food industry, for creating appealing food products for consumers. Here, researcher has attempted to use the emerging technology pulsed electric fields (PEFs) for enhancing the extraction of colorant, like anthocyanin from purple-fleshed potato at varying temperature, with the use of solvent, water and ethanol. The researcher used surface methodology for determining optimal PEF treatment and optimising anthocyanin extraction. From the results, the researcher interpreted that PEF technology can improve anthocyanin extraction yield from purple-fleshed potato (Puertolas et al., 2013). This process helps in extracting anthocyanin in water devoid of ethanol. The investigation revealed that when the extracxction temperature or solvent was used independently for extracting colorant from PFP, t he yield is always higher, compared to permeabilised tissue prior to the application of PEF treatment. It is a promising technique, in regards to reduce energetic cost of treatment and to eliminate the organic solvent use for extracting colorants from PFP. Increased pollution, urbanization and industrialization are facilitating environmental contamination gradually. The severe effect of contamination on public health has promoted international bodies to undertake significant actions for controlling such environmental contaminants. Bioremidiation has been shown to be the most innovative and ideal solution for controlling adverse effects. It is the process of using living microorganism for remediating polluted areas. Microorganims degrade environmental pollutants through a number of processes such as biodtimulation, bioaccumulation, bioaugmentation, phytoremediation, bioabsorption and rhizoremediation. Bioventing is a technique, where oxygen and nutrients are injected into soil for maintaining bioremediation. In contrast, in biosprging technique, air is injected under pressure below the water table for enhancing the level of ground water oxygen concentration and thereby increasing the rate of biological degradation. Bioaugmentation is re ferred to the technology, which include the delivery of living microorganisms to a polluted site for enhancing degradation (Niti et al., 2013). The process is advantageous because it is a natural process, cost effective and harmless to the environment. Limitations include chance of partial degradation and toxic by-products formation. These processes are time consuming and need a high initial cost. Moreover, if not monitored properly, there is a high chance of environmental damage. In this paper Ranganath, Sravanthy and Krupali (2012) discussed about the prospects of screenless display, which is an emerging technology along with great potential to be applied in different fields. The key aim of this technology is to display or transmit information in absence of a projector or screen. The technology involves three working principles and classified into three main groups. These are the visual image, virtual retinal display and synptic interface. A visual image involves any screen less image, which could be perceived through eye. For instance, holograms are used as an alternative screen in telecommunications. On the other hand, the virtual retinal display involves direct projection of images on retina. Once the system is placed in market, it would be highly appealing, as it offers extreme privacy during computer related work. On the other hand, synaptic interface system works without using light. In this system, the visual information directly hit the brain, bypass ing eye. The key use of screen fewer displays are in developing mobile phones for old and blind people. It can be used in developing screen less laptops. Advantages of this technology include low requirement of power, high resolution image products, greater portability, presentation of 3D images and low cost. Disadvantages include acceptance and lack of acceptable models. It is an emerging computer technology with a wide range of application in various fields, like education, business, manufacturing, defence, exploration, medicine and leisure activities. It is a promising tool, offering exciting possibilities like science fiction. Through this technology, with the use of up dated software, realistic images, sensations, sounds and an environment are generated to enable the users interaction with the objects shown in the specialized display screens or projector or other specialized device. It promotes a three-dimensional environment, for giving user the ability to interact with the artificial world around him (Onyesolu, 2016). A number of researchers are working on this technology to revolutionize the way computers are used nowadays. This system has a wide potential to be used in motion pictures and leisure activities. Telemedicine is becoming very much popular in health care sector. In surgical practice, it is being used widely. Here, in this study, researchers highlighted a new low cost telementoring prototype, which promote better promotion of surgical information and able to provide specialized expertise to rural areas. The researcher highlighted the importance of video conferencing equipment in surgical education and postoperative follow up. It promote patients self management and eliminate the need for patients visit to physicians chamber during post surgical period (Bogen et al., 2014). Visual assisted mentoring includes the use of telestration. This technology helps a surgeon to draw a freehand sketch on the video stream. It in turn help the mentor to express their teaching through visual and verbal means. However, these technologies have several challenges. These require high degree of professional skills, high cost critical ethical and legal consideration. The current business world is witnessing the wide range of application of ICT technologies. With the emergence of this technology, range of communication related aspects has become easy in business field. Chinedu Eze, Duan and Chen (2014) has aimed to investigate the adoption and implementation of ICT technologies in the small and medium enterprises with the use of actor-network theory. Researcher used a qualitative approach for investigating the SMEs services. With 26 interviewees, two rounds of interview were conducted and data were collected. Findings revealed that the nature of emerging ICT adoption is recursive and dynamic with a steady interactions and negotiations. The ATN framework revealed the stages of dynamic process of adopting ICT technologies and the key actors associated with the adoption process. Baghai (2014) evaluated the use of visual analytics in the business and social field A software named VALET was developed by the visual analytics for command, control and Interoperability environments (VACCINE) for using tempotal and spatial data collection from real-time records. Here, the researcher aimed to explore the possibilities of translating this software in various industries and business field. Various business cases were analyzed for evaluating the ways through which VALET can improve the business intelligence. The findings revealed unique capability of VALET for ingesting various datasets in different formats and input channels. It also has the capacity of delimiting text files into system. More research is going on in different industries to identify more unique capabilities of this technology Reference List Baghai, J. (2014). Visual analytics: The emerging technology moving business and society forward. The Journal of Purdue Undergraduate Research, 4(1), 16 Bajwa, M. (2014). Emerging 21st Century Medical Technologies. Pakistan journal of medical sciences, 30(3), 649. Bogen, E. M., Augestad, K. M., Patel, H. R., Lindsetmo, R. O. (2014). Telementoring in education of laparoscopic surgeons: An emerging technology. World journal of gastrointestinal endoscopy, 6(5), 148. Chen, H., Yada, R. (2011). Nanotechnologies in agriculture: New tools for sustainable development. Trends in Food Science Technology, 22(11), 585-594. Chinedu Eze, S., Duan, Y., Chen, H. (2014). Examining emerging ICT's adoption in SMEs from a dynamic process approach. Information Technology People, 27(1), 63-82. Luxton, D. D., McCann, R. A., Bush, N. E., Mishkind, M. C., Reger, G. M. (2011). mHealth for mental health: Integrating smartphone technology in behavioral healthcare. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42(6), 505. Niti, C., Sunita, S., Kamlesh, K., Rakesh, K. (2013). Bioremediation: An emerging technology for remediation of pesticides. Res J Chem Environ, 17, 88-105. Onyesolu, M. O. (2016). Virtual reality: An emerging computer technology of the 21st century. Electroscope Journal, 1(1), 36-40. Purtolas, E., Cregenzn, O., Luengo, E., lvarez, I., Raso, J. (2013). Pulsed-electric-field-assisted extraction of anthocyanins from purple-fleshed potato. Food Chemistry, 136(3), 1330-1336. Ranganath, K., Sravanthy, M., Krupali, P. (2012). Screenless DisplaysThe Emerging Computer Technology. International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA), ISSN, 2248-9622. Su, J., Zhang, S., Ling, M. M., Chung, T. S. (2012). Forward osmosis: an emerging technology for sustainable supply of clean water. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 1-5. Wankhede, M., Bouras, A., Kaluzova, M., Hadjipanayis, C. G. (2012). Magnetic nanoparticles: an emerging technology for malignant brain tumor imaging and therapy. Expert review of clinical pharmacology, 5(2), 173-186.

Thomas More Essays (831 words) - Anglican Saints, Anti-Protestantism

Thomas More At the last debating whereof he made such arguments and reasons there against, that the King's demands were thereby overthrown. So that one of the King's privy chamber, named Mr. Tyler, being present thereat, brought word to the King out of the Parliament house, that a beardless boy had disappointed all his purposes. Whereupon the King conceiving great indignation towards him could not be satisfied until he had some way revenged it. And forasmuch as he nothing having, nothing could lose, his grace devised a causeless quarrel against his Father, keeping him in the Tower until he had paid him an hundred pounds fine. Shortly hereupon it fortuned that this Sir Thomas More coming in a suit to Dr. Fox, Bishop of Winchester, one of the King's privy council, they called him aside, and pretending great favour towards him, promised him that if he would be ruled by him, he would not fail but into the King's favour again to restore him, meaning, as it was after conjectured, to cause him thereby to confess his offence against the King, whereby his Highness might with better colour have occasion to revenge his displeasure against him. But when he came from the Bishop, he fell in communication with one Mr. Witford, his familiar friend, then chaplain to that Bishop and after a Father of Sion, and showed him what the Bishop had said unto him, desiring to have his advice therein, who for the passion of God prayed him in no wise to follow his counsel "for my Lord my Master (quoth he) to serve the King's turn will not stick to agree to his own father's death." So Sir Thomas More returned to the Bishop no more when Sir Thomas More had remained in the Tower a little more than a month, my wife, longing to see her father, by her earnest suit at length gat leave to go to him. At whose coming (after the seven psalms and litany said, which whensoever she came to him, ere he fell in talk of any worldly matters, he used accustomably to say with her) among other communication he said unto her, prolific letter writer Since More was a practising lawyer and politician for most of his adult life he was allowed to correspond with his eldest daughter Margaret Roper (who was also allowed to visit him in prison) Within two weeks of More's death (6 July 1535), an eye-witness account of More's final trial and execution written , for a different view of the relationships between the various accounts of More's execution.] More served Henry faithfully in some of the most trying times the English court has ever known, and when he refused to attend Anne Boleyn's coronation ceremony he knew what was in store. He was later requested to take an oath acknowledging Henry the supreme head of the Church in England, and when he (as a loyal Roman Catholic) refused he was tried and convicted of treason. This essay has indicated that the humanists were concerned with developing a noble style in their oral and written communication. They were also concerned with their style of behavior. They valued witty behavior, and especially a witty jest ; and they immensely admired a quality of polished urbanity when it was manifest in difficult situations. One way of summing this up would be to say that the humanists admired a man who never "lost his cool." According to William Roper, More's son-in-law and biographer, Sir Thomas More even quipped at the time of his death. To one of his attendants at the foot of the shaky scaffold More said, "I pray you, Master Lieutenant, see me safe up, and for my coming down let me shift for myself." And when the executioner begged his pardon, More embraced him and said to him "pluck up thy spirits, man, and be not afraid to do thine office." Finally, as he was laying his head upon the block, he begged the executioner stay until he had removed his beard, saying that it had never committed any treason. The execution of More in 1535 shocked and dismayed humanists throughout Europe. Their hopes blasted by nationalism, religious faction and royal pride, it became impossible for men like More and Erasmus, to prevail. The succeeding generation of humanists tended, like Francis Petrarch earlier, to be more cautious, more deferential to established power and doctrine. Sir Thomas More considered becoming a Carthusian monk, but chose instead the active life of law and public service. After

Tender Pricing Process for Accommodation Building The WritePass Journal

Tender Pricing Process for Accommodation Building Task 05 Tender Pricing Process for Accommodation Building INTRODUCTIONTask 055.1 Draft inquiry letter to5.2 Explain different forms of discounts given by the suppliers and how would   you incorporate those discounts into your tender.Related INTRODUCTION This assignment has been concise five main tasks through different topics related to cost estimation. The focuses of estimating for selected areas in a proposed accommodation building, tender pricing techniques, build up unit rates for selected descriptions from BOQ are discussed through the sub tasks. Especially the parties participating of involved in pricing for a particular project and factor to be consider when pricing for a tender sum also identified and clearly discussed further, such as site over heads, head office over heads, subcontractor, suppliers, and the discounts for the performance of suppliers, subcontractors and the client. At the time of build up rates for given descriptions the cost information and the current market price for components of the description take place as a challenge, so those are collected from site people and dealer of the material and the summery of the items which are related to the tasks also attached for further clarifications. TASK 1 1   Describe the tender pricing process of above tender. This is the tender pricing process given below Receipt of invitation to tenders Decision to tender Collection of tender documents Examine tender documents Collection of necessary document Preparing necessary documents Tender adjudication submission of tender Receipt of invitation to tenders Ministry of   health advertise this invitation to tender   for batticalo government hospital two story patients building in   srilankan public news paper. Our company got this information â€Å"veeracasari† daily news paper. They are published in news paper because this is open tender. If anyone   have the enough qualification they can participate the tender. Decision to tender On receipt of tender documents a tender information form should be completed by the estimator acknowledgement on receipt of the enquiry should send to the client or his consultant. This form will provide management with the summary of the project the tender documentation it will be a significant document contributing the decision of the submission of the tender Collection of tender documents We get the tender documents form ministry of health .these are some tender documents Tender notice / Invitation to tender , condition of tender /   Instruction to bidders , Form of agreement, Conditions of contract and appendix to condition of contract, Form of tender , Drawings, Bonds Bills of Quantities / Specifications / Schedule of rates , Schedules. Examine tender documents The estimator must inspect the tender document before the preparation of the net estimate and the check list must be establish of the documents receipt. Inspection of the tender document must seek to achieve the following objective The documents received are those in the enquiry Sufficient time is variable for production for tender The documents and information are adequate for assessing costs Collection of necessary document We must collect the price list of   the materials, plats haring rate , labour rate. We should get the cortation   form the material suppliers. We must calculate the total cost of this two story hospital building . Preparing necessary documents We must prepare financial statement   of our company, work programmed, method of statement , site origination chart , bid bond and   pricing of bill of quantity. Tender adjudication First we must estimate the cost and decide the markup percentage. After that adding that markup percentage to estimated cost. Then used that final cost in to the tendering purpose Submission of tender Tenderers must lodge their tender with full identification and documentation at the nominated location by the advertised date and time. The estimator must ensure that the procedure set out in the tender documents for the submission of the tender is followed particularly. The form of tender and any other declarations, must be completed as required and sign by an authorized person from the contractor’s organization. The codes of procedure for selective tendering, whether for main contractors, state that a tenderer who submits a qualified tender should be given reasonable opportunity to withdraw his qualifications without amendment of his tender price. 1.2   explain the factors that need to be considered in pricing the proposed project .describe related factors only to the given project Special conditions or instructions given by client In the batticalo hospital client’s ministry of health. This is a hospital building because this is not complicated design. But in the apartment   construction, designing is very complicated.   Comparing the hospital   construction and   apartment construction take more   working hours. It’s very easy to construct hospital   constructions than the other   building constructions .    Availability of material, labour, plant, technology Availability of resource one of the main consideration factor during the pricing time. Because in the construction field, it is totally depends on the material, labour, plant and technology. In hospital construction   materials availability is lower than the other construction materials. So we have to find the suitable suppliers find the competitive quotation and select one from them and price the tender for competitive price. In our hospital construction is two story building because   no need for higher plant we need the normal plant only We can get the plant for the construction cheaply. Any how the estimator duty is according to the contract chose the correct price and pricing tender. And also more than these availabilities. Location Location is one of the important consideration factors in the pricing of tender. Because in the location we consider the many things like the transport facilities, availability of material, labour and plants, storage, weather conditions, etc. Our location is situated in thebatticalo. So we can easily find material labour force there. We can’t   find huge plant facilities from that area. So this cost will be affect in the pricing of the tender. In the storage site facilities is the other important factor in here. We can easily find the storage facilities in the near area. The storage facility cost will low than the city so it’s an advantage for us in the storage cost.             Construction period and maintenance period    At the pricing time, estimator should consider the construction period and maintenance period of the building. Because the working process depending on the time and cost. In the hospital construction may the construction period is lower   but the same kind of the work is here. In pricing time normally put more unit rate in short period contracts. Because the normal working process should be change and take some arrangement for this. In our case we cant used noise making instruction this is in the hospital because we always keep silence. After the construction we gave one year for the maintenance of the building. This is a hospital building because most people use this building because we must maintenance correct fully .because we need allocate more amount for that .    Competition in the market While considering the market situation in these days the hospital   construction is very rare in the market. All the construction companies cannot do this kind of hospital construction works. reason is client is ministry of health this is one of the government. Normally government they didn’t pay the money on time.   So when the pricing time of the tender we can go some advantageous price. So we have to collect some money for   this new works. And finally we have to request the management to put the high percentage of profit margin. By doing this we can earn a huge profit. This is government project because we don’t care about market competitions the reason is if we participate the tender we must rejecter in ICTAD. In batticalo most of the contractors they didn’t rejecter in ICTAD . Payment of structure We must considerate the payment   structure. How much rupees they paid for advanced then when they make the second and other payment. We must conformed and   fixed to the payment dates .          Fluctuation We must conformed fluctuation allow or not . Now   materials of the market price is suddenly going up and down. Market price going up this will be effect   to the contractor. Market price going down this is good for contractor but effect to the client ( In our scenario client is ministry of health department ). Before tendering we must conformed these thinks. Type of contract In our scenario this is a lump sum type contract. Normally lump sum type contracted base on drawing and specification. In these type of contracted most important document is drawing and specification. Quantity surveyor must care fully read the   drawing and specification do the calculation work care fully. Quantity surveyor make any mistake in the calculation part this will be effect to the contractors profit.  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚   1.3) Explain what type of cost information you would use in pricing this tender and name the sources of such cost information Pricing this tender is the major part of preparation of BOQ. This procedure will be done by using different cost information. Do to this type of project we can get the cost details from an experienced person like a sub contractor who is specialized in this kind of hospital   constructions. we can get the cost information by having a conversation with some suppliers or sub contractor too. There are some sources from that the information about the materials, labour and plant can be taken, Quotation  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   to get the sub contractor or supplier. If previous same project   Ã‚   if the contractor can be used the previous project experience, he wants consider the type of project; the previous project will be good experience for this current project to reduce tender pricing. Daily report. Price index this is issues ICTAD in Sri Lanka. So to price this particular tender we can take the pricing information through quotation for suppliers and sub contractors. Because, this is a government   project which is going to be with high quality   and also we are specialized in any type   construction we can go for quotations. The contractor’s success in obtaining contract depends upon  ­quality of the quotations received for materials, plant and items to be subcontracted. It is essential to obtain realistically competitive prices at the time of preparing the estimate. Standard procedures must be established setting to responsibilities of the person who is to carry out the enquiry function and any subsequent negotiations that arise. Lists of items for which quotations are required are established following the detailed exanimation of the contract documents. Details of past performance, previous performance in returning complete quotation on time, extent of geographical operation, size and type of contract on which previously used, information concerning contacts are considered when selecting sub contractors and this will be necessary if deal with unknown suppliers and sub contractors. Pre selection must confirm that quotations will be submitted and establish that the particular suppliers or sub contractors has the necessary resources and desire to tender for the project. The professional manner in which enquiries are sent to suppliers and sub contractors can have considerable effect on the qualityof quotations submitted. Objective of sending out enquires for supplier and subcontractor to labour, materials, and plant is to ensure that technically accurate quotations are received with the main contract conditions. This must clearly setout terms conditions on which quotations are being invited. All needed materials for this project shall be supplied from the selected suppliers. Enquiries to suppliers of materials must state these important factors: Title and location of the work, and site address Specification, class and quality of the material ,Quantity of the material Delivery programmed , Special deliver Date by which the quotation is required, Period for the quotation is to remain open. Conclusion In above task I am clearly indicate the tender pricing process of   batticalo two story hospital building and clearly indicate some factors considering   in pricing process of above construction   project. Finally I am explaining how we can get the cost information using our tender and name of source such cost information.       Task 2 2.1)What are the factors affecting pricing   labour, material and plant items in day work Schedule? Labour The calculation for the prime cost of labour differs somewhat from that of the all-in-rate, various incidental costs, over heads and profit are deemed to be included in the percentage added to the prime cost rate by the contractor. The percentage added must include all other items that the contractor considers are necessary to cover the true cost incurred but not allowed under the definition of prime cost of day work. At the time of calculation following factors to be consider for pricing Wages :- wages depend on his talent (eg-special skilled ,skilled or un skilled) we must pay the wages   his skill   type only. Wage is different for every type. Transportation time :- The labour come to other site we must allow a percentage for his transporting cost. If   this cost higher than the accommodation cost we can arrange the accommodation for labours we can reduce the anonymous cost. Overtime :- A labour   normally working eight   hours per day but our requirement he some time he working ten hours or eleven hours per day if he work eleven hourse per day over time three hours. These   three hours per day we must paid 1.25 X   one our wage. Subsistence allowances   Social benefits (EPF, ETF) :- this benefits only for permanent labours only. Not for daily wage labours. Company will pay some percentage of his/ her   salary and some percentage of his salary. These percentage is decided by labour department (Srilanka) Overhead :- we must add a percentage for over head. This is operating cost of the contractor head office. This is indirect expenditure. Superintendence Liabilities, Insurance and allowances for labours       Material The contractor shall be entitle to payment in respect of materials used for day work at the rates in the contract documents, in the schedule of day work rates and such rates shall be deem to includes overhead charges, profit, cost and other expenses. Factors to be consider when the pricing are; Material cost: material cost also effect the pricing of day work schedule. Wastages: we must include some percentage for wastage. This wastage mostly affects the timber. Form work time timber wastage is very high. Our structural design is very difficult that time we make some molding for get required shape. That time timber wastage is very high. For example sand we un loading sand in our site we can’t use the total cube of material. When the storing time sand will mixed with bottom part of the land that sand mixed with other sand we can’t use that sand for construction works Insurances:-   some materials we must take a insurance otherwise we may face huge problem. Here a am indicate a problem for example my home town is Jaffna. I am studied at Hartley College. The tsunami time (2004) our school built a auditorium for 1500 student. End of the year tsunami attacked Srilanka that time Jaffna also effect hugely. That time our school store they keep 500 bags cement. But they didn’t get the insurance. Those 500 cement bag fully destroyed. That project contractor face huge lost that time and he left that project. Some time he get a insurance he don’t care about this problem this a natural disaster because that insurance company they paid the full money. I hope This Is a good example for this insurance. Because we must   get a insurance for required materials Handling expenses (loading, unloading, storing) :- whatever   the material we are using at site those material has the loading and unloading process. If we are doing the estimation we must add a percentage for loading and unloading purpose. Some material we stored any wear but some material we must keep carefully for examples steel, tiles, cement, some expensive materials Losses:- if there theft happen we must parches that lost material because we must spent more money for that material for examples electrical fittings, other costly items Head office overhead:- we must add some percentage for head office over head. This percentage will decide by contractor. Profit:- this is a amount for contractor. This amount will be decide by contractor and add the amount in material cost. Plant The charge for plant is normally applied under ‘Schedule of basic plant charges’. The rates in the schedule are basic and may subject to an overall adjustment to be quoted by the contractor prior to placing of the contract. The rates apply to plant and machinery already on site, whether hired or owned by the contractor. If we are hiring a plant first we pay some amount for advance and guaranteed .our using time any troubles may occurred. If that trouble is minor work we must repair that problem. Otherwise they deduct some amount for that repair work. The rates unless otherwise stated , include the cost of fuel of every description; lubricating oils, grease, maintenance, sharpening of tools,   replacement of spare parts, all consumable stores, and for license and insurance applicable to items of plant. They do not include the costs of drivers and attendants. The rates should be applied to the time during which the plant is actually engaged in day work. Whether or not plant is chargeable on day works depends on the day work agreement in use. Conclusion Before calculating the labour , plant, material we must know about what are the factors affect the pricing those item after that we can   successfully done the pricing of labour, plant , material. Above task I am   indicate some factors and clearly describe how   to effect those calculations. I hope I am done my level best explain in above task.    Task-03 Explain the reason for using particular method of pricing In my calculation part I am using norms. If we are using the norms no need to do the extra works for examples No need to calculating the wastage separately No need to calculate the shrinkage   separately Our description is a standard because I am using norms directly. Task -04 4.1) Describe the preliminary items that could be required in implementing permanent works of this project. List out the items considered for calculation of head office over head and how you would calculate the over head percentage The pricing preliminaries of the bill of quantities are the estimator’s part in the preparation of a tender process. Preliminary means the items which are not included in the measured works section. The contractor’s general cost items, temporary woks, contractual matters; specific requirements of the employer will be included under the preliminaries. Preliminary section can be divided as fixed charges and time related charges. The description of the work as a whole and the circumstances in which it is to be constructed is intended to convey to the estimator an initial impression of the types of work involved, including any particular or usual features or conditions that are relevant. Bearing in mind, which accompanies the tender documents, the description required under this rule can be relatively succinct. I have identified the following preliminaries items that could be required for     permanent works of this proposed project. Management and staff , site accommodation ,insurance, engineers facility, performance bond, Advance guarantee bond, Services and facilities (Power, lighting, fuels, water, telephone facility, safety, health and welfare, security, storage facility ) ,Mechanical plant (Personnel transport, transport) ,Temporary works (Access scaffolding, Support scaffolding and propping   ) Duration   Project duration is important factor which is affect a project cost directly. Availability of material  Ã‚   This project is in batticalo. If we get the most material in batticalo, we may be in a position to complete this work in a quick process. Also we may get the materials with acceptable price. That also will affect the pricing of preliminaries.    Services and facilities Project time we must arrange the accommodation for Labours. If we arrange the accommodation we gave some belongs facilities toilets, electricity. This cost also affects the pricing of preliminaries. Staff accommodation   While providing the staff accommodation, we are providing the all the staff for entire project period. But the reality sometimes staffs may be not needed for the entire duration of this project. That will affect the pricing the preliminary. Access of the site During the excavation period we have to bring large machineries. Therefore we need large access of the site to bring the large machineries. If we don’t have the large access we have to do other methods. That’s also affecting the pricing the preliminary. Staff vehicles   Ã‚   Staff members travel head office to site office, site office to head office and other purpose we must arrange for a vehicle. If we hiring the vehicles for professional staff. we must paid for more money because we bought a new vehicle for our company that cost will affect the pricing of preliminary. This total price is increase that particular project cost will increase. Guarantees and bonds This is common for most of the projects, that client will requires some amount of money as a bond which to keep a good relationship between the two parties. A contractor normally pays a single insurance premium for this and it can be a very expensive item depending on the financial status and experience of the contractor. Testing material Throughout a contract the testing of materials may be ordered by the architect. That test costs can be taken laboratories. These requirements executed by the consultant which helps to maintain quality, standard workmanship of the works. It will also affecting the pricing the preliminary. In our project will be commencing at  Ã‚   Batticalo . We can’t find a testing center Form Batticalo because we must brink required samples to Colombo that time traveling charge, Who brink that samples to Colombo that person welfare cost. These cost are including in the testing material. This cost also affects the cost of preliminaries. Pricing for maintenance of public and private roads Some contracts need provision for the repair of damage to existing roads by the builder’s plant and heavy vehicles continually passing over them. They must also be constantly kept clean and free of mud, building materials, debris and the like. Head office overheads The construction of the project must contribute towards the cost of running company’s head office and other general overheads of the organization. This consist of the cost of administrating a company and providing off site services the apportionment of head office over heads to project and to the company as a whole is decided by management as part of the management policy. Items considered for calculation of head office over head Head office salaries Director’s fees Office rent/depreciation of furniture Incidental insurance Heat, light, power, fuel Stationary Postage Books and telephone   charges Auditor’s fees Staff vehicles Interest on working capital and retention money Head office over head percentage X 100 H/O % =   total h/o expenses during previous year   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Total turn over during previous year Total turnover mean how much money come to the head office. These are some basic examples for turnover, interim payment resived from various client, advanced payment of previous project.    4.2) build up the management and supervision cost of this project. Clearly state the factors to be considered in pricing    Establishment Running cost Disposal cost Total Assumption             Site engineer-1    12X40000       Clerk-1    12X14000       Store keeper-1    12X12000       Supervisor-1    12X20000       Quantity surveyor-1    12X35000       Accountant-1    12X15000    Total -1632000    These are some factors directly link with the pricing of management and supervision cost. If we select the b.sc holder site engineer we must pay more money because we select next lower level best site engineer with more experience (   for example 5 years) we can reduce our monthly salary cost. We are selecting the professional people like this we can save lot of money. Conclusion In above task I am clearly indicted what are the preliminaries items required in permanent work of this our project and I gave some factors to calculate the head office over head and head office over head percentage.    Task 05 5.1 Draft inquiry letter to A) M/s mascons ltd requesting prices of asbestos roofing sheets The Managers, M/s Mascons (PVT) Ltd, No 39, Inner fairline Rd, Dehiwala . 01.10.2010 Dear Sir, Quotation for Asbestos roofing sheets    We are Raj engineering (PVT) Ltd, which is located in No 12A, Boswell place, Wellawattae. We have decided to tender for a project which is a two story hospital building in batticalo. According to our estimation we need 200 Asbestos roofing sheets 10’X4’ size. This project is going to construct in Batticalo area. As we know that your company has a branch in batticalo. As we are having a good relationship with your company for past 4 years, we decided to request the quotation from your company for this tender too. The materials we require on 1st of November 2010. We want the quotation within 14 days from the day you receive this letter. Also we kindly request you to include about your credit facilities, discount details, storage facilities and your best price for our requirement. Thank you. Yours faithfully, T.subaraj   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (Junior Q.S) B) M/s ABC tiles requesting rates for fixing tiles Dear Sir, Quotation   for   fixing tiles rate    We are Raj engineering (PVT) Ltd, which is located in No 12A, Boswell place, Wellawattae. We have decided to tender for a project which is a two story hospital building in batticalo. According to our estimation we want fixed 10000 (300X300) tiles for 100000m2 area. Because we need a quotation for fixing tiles. This project is going to construct in Batticalo area. As we know that your company has a branch in batticalo. We have a good relationship with you; we decided to request the quotation from your company for this tender. We require on 1st of November 2010. We want the quotation within 14 days from the day you receive this letter. Also we kindly request you to include about your credit facilities, discount details, your best price for our requirement. Thank you.       Yours Faithfully, T.Subaraj 5.2 Explain different forms of discounts given by the suppliers and how would   you incorporate those discounts into your tender. Discounts Discounts are quoted or stated cost of which will deduct from the payment of the suppliers and sub-contractors. It is depend on the fulfillment of the conditions which asked specified in the contract for acquiring discounts. The purposes of the discounts are increase the short terms sales, move out of date stocks, reword valuable customers. Mainly there are two types of discounts, those are as follows; Cash discounts Trade discounts Cash discounts Cash discount is often given by the suppliers and sub-contractors to encourage early settlement of accounts. A statement is sent to the contractor at the beginning of each month listing the invoices for materials or services supplied during the previous month. If payment is made by end of the month, a settlement (cash) discount may be taken. These discounts are allowed off invoices if the contractor pay’s within a certain period. In the case of sub-contractors, the period is 17 days after issue of the architect’s certificate which includes the value of the invoice work or services. In the case of suppliers, the period is 30 days from end of the month during which delivery of materials or goods is made. If payment is not paid within the specified period, the contractor is not entitled to deduct the discount. For an example; the client pay his monthly payment earlier the contractor will be given some amount of discount for client, same think happening between main contrac tors and supplier, sub-contractors. Trade discounts Trade discounts are customarily allowed off the prices on standard price list of materials and goods in particular trades. This is often done to avoid frequent revision of such lists, the discounts being varied to allow for fluctuations in prices. In addition some suppliers will allow larger discounts to regular customers or those who buy large quantities. So the more the contractor buys he will get more amounts of discounts to a maximum amount provided by the supplier. Explanation of how to incorporate them into the tender Company name Sanan trade company Raj construction company Suban trade company Cost of material 1700 1200 2000 Discount 5% 20% 10% Payment structure 5% advanced No advanced 10% advanced Warranty 5 years 20 years 10 years Trade name of material Known Un known Known Above table clearly indicate three different types of company’s details. In this case we can select sanan Trade Company for supply materials. If we are select that company we can get the 5% of discount because our tendering amount will be reduce. We can easy to win the tender reasonable cost. The main contractor is always expecting about the discount to use it in pricing the tender. If the main contractor knows the amount of the discounts from the subcontractors or suppliers, he can reduce the rate of the work in that tender. So the tender price may be reduced. This might be increased the chance to win the tender. That is why the estimator or being consultancy Quantity Surveyors should have a thorough knowledge about the discounts and should apply the discounts while he is pricing the tender.       Conclusion I gained lot of knowledge about cost estimation through this assignment got idea about the tender pricing process, the factors that need to be considered in pricing a tender, the sources and nature of information for cost estimating, the factors affecting labour , material and plant rates, all-in-labour, material plant rates, unit rates that reflect the current local market prices for measured work items in a BOQ, preliminary, overhead costs in a bills of Quantities, the cost of site facilities to be provided by the contractors, prepare letters of enquires for supply of materials and subcontract services and different forms of discount .those are I gained through this assignment. I referred lot of books to do this assignment .I got idea through our batch mates to do this assignment. And also review was useful for me. in review time our lecture corrected my fall in the assignment so review was very useful. REFERENCE Ivor H.Seely, Quantity Surveying Practices, 2nd Edition Published by Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. RD Buchan, F.W. Fleming and J.R. Kelly ,Estimating for Builders and Quantity Surveyors ,1st Edition ,British library cataloguing in publication data,1991. The procurement committee of the charted Institute of building, Code of estimating practice, 6th Edition, Published by The charted Institute of building through Englemere services limited, 1997. Wills, Practice and procedures for the quantity surveyors, 12th Edition, Blackwell publishing. Jack Ramus, Arics and Simon Birchall, Contract Practices for Surveyors, 3rd Edition, Published by British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, 1996.

Air lines industry Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Air lines industry - Research Paper Example Introduction Air travel in the US is a complex industry, whereas its flow aspect – the airlines – is liberalized economically. The airline industry is prone to many guidelines. Moreover, the reimbursement aspects, work regulations and capital of the airline industry still reflect approximately fifty years of political power and protection (Smith & Cox, 2008). The airline industry needs lasting decision-making since it is highly capital demanding. For instance, decisions such as hire, building airport infrastructure, developing route systems or buying aircraft have multi-decade inferences and require large capital investments. Consequently, accounting data in the airline industry is not likely to be the solitary forecaster of future growth opportunities. The 1978 deregulation of the industry eliminated the shields that protected airlines from ecological ambiguity and market rivalry, for example economic recessions and fuel price increases. Hence, following deregulation, it might be difficult to see the clear connection between the firm’s stock proceeds and managers' actions in the airline industry. Moreover, these factors advocate that non-financial approaches might have significant information concerning managerial actions, not enclosed in financial measures. This necessitates including them unreservedly or explicitly in compensation deals which decreases the risk borne by airline managers (Srinivasan, et al, 1998). The decade of the 1980s was a chaotic era for the commercial aviation division in the United States. The deregulation of the American commercial aviation sector in 1978 had totally modified the features of civil aviation in the nation. Prior to deregulation, the federal government had noteworthy influence over routes and fares. Conversely, following deregulation, liberated rivalry steered in a new period in passenger air travel. Airlines discarded smaller cities, assumed ‘hub’ cities, competed with new less signific ant airlines that had entered the market and possibly most essential, decreased passenger fares noticeably. The resultant effects of deregulation, however, proved to be more spectacular for the airlines (Siddiqi, 2009). Ultimate problems affect the industry despite considerable gains of economic liberalization. A number of these problems are transitional, the enormous modifications needed by the end of a half century of severe directive. The regulated airline cartels obtained returns on capital that were supposed to be sensible. Nevertheless, these returns factored in high costs that would frequently not exist in a competitive market. For instance, the airlines’ unionized personnel, founded and reinforced under regulation, gained liberal salaries and unproductive work policies compared with expectation in a competitive market (Smith & Cox, 2008). Major Financial problems The returns of the airlines have not been proportionate with the incomes. For instance, the twelve main U. S. airlines moved from a net profit of $72.5 million in 1955 modest as compared to their $ 1.5 billion of working incomes through a sequence of less gainful years, which comprised a general loss for 1961. At the end of 1962, with net profits of roughly $40 million on revenues of $3.0 billion, the carriers were considerably behind their 1958 and 1959 situations, which effected mainly from non-jet operations (Kerley, 1967). Dempsey (2008) indicates that